Phalaenopsis orchids are recognized as the most popular orchid genus in the world, especially in horticultural industry due to their large, colorful, and durable flowers as well as their wider adaptability to room conditions. The importance of the age and physiological state of the explant, and the relative genetic stability of embryogenic cultures and regenerated plants is discussed. It highlights the success achieved in establishing totipotent callus and cell suspension cultures, and reports the development of protoplast culture systems yielding somatic embryos and plants and the recent recovery of somatic hybrid cell lines and genetically transformed cell lines. This article describes the advances made in cell culture of important members of this group of crop species. The cereals and grasses, which constitute the most important group of crop plants, have until recently been found to be very recalcitrant to cell culture techniques. In order to have any meaningful impact on agriculture the developing biotechnology must be equally and readily applicable to important crop species. Nevertheless, the fact remains that most of the success achieved so far has been with model plant species and the transfer of these new technologies to major crop species that are the principal targets of biotechnology has either been slow and difficult, or is non-existent. This has stimulated a great deal of interest and activity in university as well as. Recent advances in cell culture and molecular biology of higher plants, which are key components of plant biotechnology, have demonstrated the considerable power and potential of these technologies in the genetic modification and improvement of plants that can not be accomplished by conventional genetic methods.
Attempts to overcome the hurdles identified in the embryogenic process, and future lines of research are proposed. Finally, molecular aspects associated with somatic embryo induction and development are also described. At present, the main concerns associated with the application of SE for large-scale propagation of elite hardwoods are related to the embryo maturation, germination, and plantlet conversion steps, and these are highlighted in this review. Maintenance of embryogenic capacity carried out by subculture of embryogenic inocula on semisolid or liquid media through cell suspension cultures or by temporary immersion systems is described. Histological studies of the origin of somatic embryos and the sequence of events leading to their development from initial explants are assessed. zygotic embryos and non-zygotic tissues, such as roots, flower tissues, nodes, internodes, leaves or shoot apices, in SE induction are especially emphasized. The role of different explant types, i.e. Factors that influence the induction stage such as the age of the donor plant, genotype and culture media are discussed. This review aims to provide a general overview of these steps in different SE systems developed for hardwood species. includes somatic embryo induction, proliferation, maturation, plantlet conversion, and subsequent plant acclimatization. Non-zygotic or somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a powerful tool in plant biotechnology as it is a form of clonal propagation, amenable to cryopreservation of valuable germplasm and genetic transformation including gene editing. Hardwood species are valuable biological resources that have an important role in the economy and ecology of ecosystems worldwide.
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